Brassier - Concepts, Objects, Gems (Chap. 19 from Theory After 'Theory')

19 C ONCEPTS, OBJECTS, GEMS Ray Brassier 1. The question ‘W hat is real?’stands at the crossroads of metaphysics and epistemology. M ore exactly, it marks the juncture ofmetaphysics and epistemology with the seal o f conceptual representation. 2. Metaphysics understood as the investigation into w hat there is intersects with epistemology understood as the enquiry into how we know what there is. This intersection o f knowing and being is articulated through a theory of conception that explains how thought gains traction on being. 3. That the articulation o f thought and being is necessarily conceptual follows from the Critical injunction, which rules out any recourse to the doctrine o f a pre-established harmony between reality and ideality.1 Thought is not guaranteed access to being; being is not inherently thinkable. There is no cognitive ingress to the real save through the concept.Yet the real itself is not to be confused with the concepts through which we know it.The fundamental problem ofphilosophy is to understand how to reconcile these two claims. 4. We gain access to the structure o f reality via a machinery o f conception which extracts intelligible indices from a w orld that is not designed to be intelligible and is not originarily infused w ith meaning. Meaning is a function o f conception and conception involves representation —though this is not to say that conceptual rep­ resentation can be construed in terms ofword-world mappings. It falls to conceptual rationality to forge the explanatory bridge from thought to being. 5. Thus the metaphysical exploration of the structure ofbeing can ordy be carried out in tandem with an epistemological investigation into the nature ofconception. For we cannot understand w hat is real unless we understand w h a t‘w hat’ means, and

we carmot understand what ‘what’means without understanding what ‘means’ is, but we cannot hope to understand what ‘means’ is w ithout understanding what ‘is’ means. 6. This much Heidegger knew.2 U nlike Heidegger however, we will not conjure a virtuous circle of ontological interpretation from the necessary circularity o f our pre-ontological understanding o f how things can be said to be. The metaphysical investigation o f being cannot be collapsed into a hermeneutical interpretation of the being o f the investigator and the different ways in which the latter understands things to be.Although metaphysical investigation cannot be divorced from enquiry into what meaning is, the point o f the latter is to achieve a metaphysical circum­ scription o f the domain o f sense which avoids the phenomenological equivocation between meaning and being. 7. If we are to avoid collapsing the investigation of being into the interpretation o f meaning, we must attain a proper understanding o f what it is for something to be independently of our conceiving, understanding, or interpreting its being. But this will only be achieved once we possess a firm grip on the origins, scope and limits of our ability to conceive, understand and interpret w hat things are. 8. The metaphysical desideratum does not consist in attaining a clearer under­ standing ofw hat we mean by being or what being means for us (as the entities we happen to be because o f our natural and cultural history), but to break out o f the circle wherein the meaning o f being remains correlated with our being as enquir­ ers about meaning, into a properly theoretical understanding ofw hat is real regard­ less o f our allegedly pre-ontological understanding of it - but not, please note, irrespective o f our ways o f conceiving it. Such a non-hermeneutical understanding o f metaphysical investigation imposes an epistemological constraint on the latter, necessitating an account that explains how sapient creatures gain cognitive access to reality through conception. 9. M eaning cannot be invoked either as originary constituent o f reality (as it is for Aristotelian essentialism) or as originary condition o f access to the w orld (as it is for Heidegger’s herm eneutic ontology): it must be recognized to be a condi­ tioned phenomenon generated through meaningless yet tractable mechanisms operative at the sub-personal (neurocomputational) as well as supra-personal (sociocultural) level.This is a naturalistic imperative. But it is important to distin­ guish naturalism as a metaphysical doctrine engaging in an ontological hypostasis o f entities and processes postulated by current science, from naturalism as an epistemological constraint stipulating that accounts o f conception, representation and meaning refrain from invoking entities or processes which are in principle refrac­ tory to any possible explanation by current or future science. It is the latter that should be embraced. Methodological naturalism simply stipulates that meaning (i.e. conceptual understanding) may be drawn upon as an epistemological explanans only so long as the concomitant gain in explanatory purchase can be safely discharged

at a more fundamental metaphysical level where the function and origin of linguistic representation can be accounted for without resorting to transcendental skyhooks (such as originary sense-bestowing acts o f consciousness, being-in-the-w orld or the Lebensw elt). T he Critical acknowledgement that reality is neither innately meaningful nor inherently intelligible entails that the capacities for linguistic sig­ nification and conceptual understanding be accounted for as processes within the world - processes through which sapient creatures gain access to the structure of a reality whose order does not depend upon the conceptual resources through which they come to know it. 10. The junction of metaphysics and epistemology is marked by the intersection oftw o threads: the epistemological thread that divides sapience from sentience and the metaphysical thread that distinguishes the reality o f the concept from the real­ ity o f the object. Kant taught us to discern the first thread. But his correlationist heirs subsequently underscored its significance at the expense o f the metaphysical thread.The occultation o f the latter, following the liquidation o f the in-itself, marks correlationism’s slide from epistemological sobriety into ontological incontinence.3 The challenge now is to hold to the metaphysical thread while learning how to reconnect it to the epistemological thread. For just as epistemology w ithout meta­ physics is empty, metaphysics w ithout epistemology is blind. 11. Kant underscored the difference between knowing, understood as the taking o f something as something, classifying an object under a concept, and sensing, the registration o f a somatic stimulus. Conception is answerable to normative standards o f truth and falsity, correctness and incorrectness, which develop fi'om but cannot be collapsed into the responsive dispositions through which one part of the world whether parrot or thermostat - transduces information from another part o f the world - sound waves or molecular kinetic energy. Knowledge is not just informa­ tion: to know is to endorse a claim answerable to the norm o f truth simpliciter, irrespective o f ends. By way o f contrast, the transmission and transduction ofinformation requires no endorsement; it may be adequate or inadequate relative to certain ends, but never ‘true’ or ‘false’. T he epistemological distinctiveness o f the former is the obverse of the metaphysical ubiquity o f the latter. 12. Critique eviscerates the object, voiding it of substance and rendering meta­ physics weightless.Tipping the scale towards conception, it paves the way for con­ ceptual idealism by depriving epistemology o f its metaphysical counterweight. Conceptual idealism emphasizes the normative valence of knowing at the cost of eliding the metaphysical autonomy o f the in-itself. It is in the work ofW ilfrid Sellars that the delicate equilibrium between a critical epistemology and a rational­ ist metaphysics is restored.4 Re-inscribing Kant’s transcendental difference between noesis and aisthesis w ithin nature, Sellars develops an inferentialist account of the normative structure o f conception that allows him to prosecute a scientific realism unencumbered by the epistemological strictures ofem piricism .5 In doing so, Sellars

augurs a new alliance between post-Kantian rationalism and post-Danvinian naturalism. His naturalistic rationalism6 purges the latter o f those residues of Cartesian dogma­ tism liable to be seized upon by irrationalists eager to denounce the superstition of ‘pure’ reason.W here the prejudices o f metaphysical rationalism hinder reason in its struggle against the Cerberus o f a resurgent irrationalism - phenomenological, vitalist, pan-psychist - Sellars’ account of the normative strictures o f conceptual rationality licenses the scientific realism that necessitates rather than obviates the critical revision of the folk-metaphysical categories which irrationalism would consecrate.7 13. Ultimately, reason itself enjoins us to abjure supernatural (i.e. metaphysical) conceptions of rationality. An eliminative materialism that elides the distinction between sapience and sentience on pragmatist grounds undercuts the normative constraint that provides the cognitive rationale for elimination. The norm of truth not only provides the most intransigent bulwark against the supernatural concep­ tion of normativity; it also provides the necessary rationale for the elimination of folk metaphysics. 14. Unless reason itself carries out the de-mystification ofrationality, irrational­ ism triumphs by adopting the mantle o f a scepticism that allows it to denounce reason as a kind of faith. The result is the post-m odern scenario, in which the rationalist imperative to explain phenomena by penetrating to the reality beyond appearances is diagnosed as the symptom o f an implicitly theological metaphysical reductionism. The metaphysical injunction to know the noumenal is relinquished by a post-modern ‘irreductionism’ which abjures the epistemological distinction between appearance and reality the better to salvage the reality of every appearance, from sunsets to Santa Claus.8 15. Irreductionism is a species o f correlationism: the philosopheme according to which the human and the non-hum an, society and nature, mind and world, can only be understood as reciprocally correlated, mutually interdependent poles of a fundamental relation. Correlationists are wont to dismiss the traditional questions that have preoccupied metaphysicians and epistemologists - questions such as ‘W hat is X?’ and ‘H ow do we know X?’ - as false problems, born o f the unfortu­ nate tendency to abstract one or other pole o f the correlation and consider it in isolation from its correlate. For the correlationist, since it is impossible to separate the subjective from the objective, or the human from the non-human, it makes no sense to ask w hat anything is in itself, independently of our relating to it. By the same token, once knowledge has been reduced to technical manipulation, it is neither possible nor desirable to try to understand scientific cognition independ­ ently o f the nexus o f social practices in w hich it is invariably implicated. Accordingly, correlationism. sanctions all those variants o f pragmatic instrumental­ ism which endorse the primacy o f practical ‘know -how ’ over theoretical ‘knowingthat’. Sapience becomes just another kind o f sentience - and by no means a privileged kind either.

16. T he assertion o f the primacy o f correlation is the condition for the post­ m odern dissolution o f the epistemology-metaphysics nexus and the two funda­ mental distinctions concomitant w ith it: the sapience-sentience distinction and the concept-object distinction. In eliding the former, correlationism eliminates epistemology by reducing knowledge to discrimination. In eliding the latter, correlationism simultaneously reduces things to concepts and concepts to things. Each reduction facilitates the other: the erasure o f the epistemological difference between sapience and sentience makes it easier to collapse the distinction between concept and object; the elision o fth e metaphysical difference between concept and object makes it easier to conflate sentience with sapience. 17. T he rejection o f correlationism entails the reinstatement o f the critical nexus between epistemology and metaphysics and its attendant distinctions: sapience/sen­ tience; concept/object. We need to know w hat things are in order to measure the gap between their phenomenal and noumenal aspects as well as the difference between their extrinsic and intrinsic properties.To know (in the strong scientific sense) what something is to conceptualize it.This is not to say that things are identical with their concepts.The gap between conceptual identity and non-conceptual difference - between what our concept of the object is and what the object is in itsel —is not an ineffable hiatus or mark of irrecuperable alterity; it can be conceptually converted into an identity that is not f t h e concept even though the concept is f i t . Pace Adorno, there is an alternative to the negation ofidentity concomitait with the concept’s failure to coincide with what it aims at: a negation ofthe concept determined by the object’s non-conceptual identity, rather than its lack in the concept. Pace Deleuze, there is an alternative to the affirmation of difference as non-representational concept (Idea) of the thing itself: an affirmation of identity in the object as ultimately determining the adequacy o f its own conceptual representation. The difference between the conceptual and the extra-conceptual need not be characterized as lack or negation, or converted into a positive concept ofbeing as Ideal difference-in-itself: it can be presupposed as akeady-given in the act ofknowing or conception. But it is presupposed without being posited. This is what distinguishes scientific representation and governs its stance towards the object.9 1S. W hat is real in the scientific representation o f the object does not coincide w ith the object’s quiddity as conceptuaUy circumscribed - the latter is what the concept m eans and what the object is; its metaphysical quiddity or essence - but the scientific posture is one which in there is an imm anent yet transcendental hiatus between the reality of the object and its being as conceptually circum­ scribed. The posture of scientific representation is one in which it is the former that determines the latter and forces its perpetual revision. Scientific representation operates on the basis o f a stance in which something in the object itself determines the discrepancy between its material reality - the fact that it is, its existence - and its being, construed as quiddity, or w hat it is. The scientific stance is one in which the reality o f the object determines the meaning o f its conception, and allows the discrepancy between that reality and the way in which it is conceptually circumscribed

to be measured.This should be understood in contrast to the classic correlationist model according to which it is conceptual meaning that determines the ‘reality’ of the object, understood as the relation between representing and represented. 19. The distinction between the object’s conceptual reality and its metaphysical real­ ity has an analogue in the scholastic distinction between objective and formal reality. Yet it is not a dogmatic or pre-Critical residue; rather, it follows from the epistemological constraint that prohibits the transcendentalization ofmeaning.The corollary of this Critical constraint is the acknowledgement of the transcendental difference between meaning and being, or concept and object. Contrary to what correlationists proclaim, the presupposition of this difference is not a dogmatic prejudice in need of critical legitimation. Quite the reverse: it is the assumption that the difference between concept and object is always internal to the concept - that every difference is ulti­ mately conceptual - that requires justification. For to assume that the difference between concept and object can only be internal to the concept is to assume that concepts furnish self-evident indexes of their own reality and internal structure - that we know w hat concepts are and can reliably track their internal differentiation - an assumption that then seems to license the claim that every difference in reality is a conceptual difference.The latter of course provides the premise for conceptual ideal­ ism, understood as the claim that reality is composed of concepts - precisely the sort of metaphysical claim which post-Kantian correlationism is supposed to abjure.Yet short of resorting to the phenomenological myth of an originary, self-constituting consciousness (one of the many variants o f the myth o f the Given, denounced by Sellars10), the same critical considerations that undermine dogmatism about the essence and existence of objects also vitiate dogiatism about the essence and exist­ ence o f concepts (whether indexed by signifiers, discursive practices, conscious expe­ riences, etc.) Consequently, it is not clear why our access to the structure of concepts should be considered any less in need of critical legitimation than our access to the structure of objects." To assume privileged access to the structure of conception is to assume intellectual intuition. But this is to make a metaphysical claim about the essen­ tial nature o f conception; an assumption every bit as dogmatic as any allegedly metaphysical assertion about the essential nature of objects. 20. Thus, even as it declares its metaphysical agnosticism, correlationism con­ stantly threatens to collapse into conceptual idealism.The latter begins by assuming that knowledge of identity and difference in the concept is the precondition for knowledge o f identity and difference in the object, before going on to conclude that every first-order difference between concept and object must be subsumed by a second-order conceptual difference, which must also in turn be conceptually subsumed at a higher level, and so on all the way up to the Absolute Notion. But unless it can be justified by the anticipation of a conceptual Absolute retrospec­ tively enveloping every past difference, the subordination o f every difference to the identity o f our current concepts is more not less dogmatic than the transcendental presupposition o f an extra-conceptual difference between concept and object.

21. M ore often than not, this idealist premise that every difference must be a difference in the concept underwrites the argument most frequently adduced by correlationists against metaphysical (or transcendental) realism. This argument revolves around a peculiar fallacy, which David Stove has christened ‘the G em ’.12 Its locus classicus can be found in paragraph 23 o f Berkeley’s Treatise Concerning the Principles o f H u m a n Knowledge, w here Berkeley challenges the assumption that it is possible to conceive o f something existing independently of our conception of it (we will disregard for present purposes the distinction between conception and perception, just as Berkeley does): But, say you, surely there is nothing easier than for me to imagine trees, for instance, in a park, or books existing in a closet, and nobody by to perceive them. I answer, you may so, there is no difficulty in it; but what is all this, I beseech you, more than framing in your mind certain ideas which you call books and trees, and the same time omitting to frame the idea of any one that may perceive them? But do not you yourself perceive or think o f them all the while? This therefore is nothing to the purpose; it only shews you have the power o f imagining or forming ideas in your mind: but it does not shew that you can conceive it possible the objects of your thought may exist w ithout the mind. To make out this, it is necessary that you conceive them existing unconceived or unthought of, w hich is a manifest repugnancy. W hen we do our utmost to conceive the existence of external bodies, we are ali the while only contemplating our own ideas. But the mind taking no notice o f itself: is deluded to think it can and does conceive bodies existing unthought o f or without the mind, though at the same time they are appre­ hended by or exist in itself. A little attention will discover to any one the truth and evidence o f what is here said, and make it unnecessary to insist on any other proofs against the existence o f material substance. (Berkeley 1988: 61) 22. Berkeley’s reasoning here is instructive, for it reveals the hidden logic o f every correlationist argument. From the indubitable premise that ‘O ne cannot think or perceive something without thinking or perceiving it’, Berkeley goes on to draw the dubious conclusion that ‘Things cannot exist without being thought or perceived.’ Berkeley’s premise is a tautology: the claim that one cannot think of something without thinking of it is one that no rational being would want to deny. But from this tautological prermse Berkeley draws a non-tautological conclusion, namely, that things depend for their existence on being thought or perceived and are nothing apart fro m our thinking or perceiving o f them.Yet Berkeley’s argument is clearly formally fallacious, since one cannot derive a non-tautological conclusion from a tautological premise. How then does it manage to exude its modicum of plausibility? As Stove points out, it does so by equivocating between two senses of the word ‘things’: things as conceived or perceived (i.e. ideata), and things simpliciter (i.e. physical objects). This is of course the very distinction Berkeley seeks to undermine; but he cannot deny it

from the outset without begging the question - the negation of this distinction and the metaphysical claim that only minds and their ideata exist is supposed to be the consequence o f Berkeley’s argument, not its presupposition.Yet it is o rly by substi­ tuting ‘things’ in the first and tautological sense o f ideata for ‘things’ in the second and non-tautological sense ofphysical objects that Berkeley is able to dismiss as a ‘mani­ fest absurdity’ the realist claim that it is possible to conceive of (physical) things exist­ ing unperceived or unthought. For it would indeed be a manifest absurdity to assert that we can conceive o f physical things w ithout conceiving of them. But it would be difficult to find any metaphysical realist who has ever endorsed such an absurdity. Rather, the realist claims that her conception of a physical thing and the physical thing which she conceives are two different things, and though the difference is perfectly conceivable, its conceivability does not render it mind-dependent - unless o f course one is prepared to go the whole Hegelian hog and insist that it is concep-tual differences all the way down (or rather, up). But then it will take more than the Gem to establish the absolute idealist claim that reality consists entirely of concepts; indeed, once the fallacious character of the Gem has been exposed, the absolute ide­ alist claim that everything is conceptual (there are no things, only concepts) has little more to recommend it than the vulgar materialist claim that nothing is conceptual (there are no concepts, only things). 23. The difficulty facing the proponent o f the Gem is the following: since the assumption that things are only ideata is every bit as metaphysical (‘dogmatic’) as the assumption that ideata are not the only things (that physical things are not ideas), the only way for the idealist to trum p the realist is by invoking the self-authenticating nature o f her experience as a thinking thing (or mind) and repository o f ideas. But this she cannot do without invoking some idealist version o fth e myth o f the Given (whose dubiety I take Sellars to have convincingly exposed). So in this regard, the alleged ‘givenness’ ofthe difference between concept and object would be no worse off' than that of the identity of the concept (qua self-authenticating mental episode). Obviously, this does not suffice to vindicate metaphysical realism; what it does reveal however is that the Gem fails to disqualify it. It is undoubtedly true that we cannot conceive of concept-independent things without conceiving of them; but it by no means follows fi-om this that we cannot conceive of things existing independently of concepts, since there is no logical transitivity from the mind-dependence o f con­ cepts to that o f conceivable objects. Only someone who is confusing rmnd-independence with concept-independence would invoke the conceivability o f the difference between concept and object in order to assert the mind-dependence of objects. 24. The paradigmatic or Berkeleyian version of the Gem assumes the following form: You cannot conceive of a mind-independent reality without conceiving of it.Therefore, you cannot conceive of a mind-independent reality.

N o t e th a t, pace B erk eley , t h e G e m d o e s n o t e n ta il t h a t th e r e is n o m in d - i n d e p e n d ­ e n t re a lity ; it m e r e ly states th a t it m u s t r e m a in in c o n c e iv a b le . T h is is o f c o u rse th e classic c o rre la tio n is t c la im . B u t as w e h a v e se e n , it is p re d ic a te d o n a f u n d a m e n ta l c o n f u s io n b e tw e e n m in d - in d e p e n d e n c e a n d c o n c e p t- in d e p e n d e n c e . T o c la im th a t C y g n u s X - 3 exists in d e p e n d e n tly o f o u r m in d s is n o t to c la im th a t C y g n u s X - 3 exists b e y o n d th e re a c h o f o u r m in d s . I n d e p e n d e n c e is n o t in ac ce ssib ility . T h e c la im th a t s o m e th in g exists m in d - in d e p e n d e n tly does n o t c o m m it o n e to th e c la im th a t it is c o n c e p tu a lly inaccessible. B y im p ly in g th a t m in d - in d e p e n d e n c e re q u ire s c o n ­ c e p tu a l inaccessib ility , th e G e m saddles tr a n s c e n d e n ta l re a lism w i t h a n e x o r b ita n t b u r d e n . B u t it is a b u r d e n w h ic h th e r e is n o g o o d re a s o n to a c c e p t. 25. T h a t o n e c a n n o t c o n c e iv e o f s o m e th in g w i t h o u t c o n c e iv in g it is u n c o n tr o - versial. B u t th e ta u to lo g ic a l p re m ise in a G e m a r g u m e n t n e e d n o t b e so o b v io u s. A l t h a t is n e c e ssa ry is t h a t it e x h ib it t h e f o llo w in g fo rm : Y o u c a n n o t d o X u n less Y, so m e n e ce ssa ry c o n d itio n fo r d o in g X , is m e t. T h u s a G e m is a n y a r g u m e n t th a t assum es th e f o llo w in g g e n e ra l fo rm : Y o u c a n n o t X u n less Y, a n e c e ssa ry c o n d itio n fo r X i n g th in g s , is m e t. T h e re f o r e , y o u c a n n o t X th in g s -in -th e m s e lv e s . O n e gets a G e m b y s u b s titu tin g f o r X a n d Y : Y o u c a n n o t e x p e r ie n c e /p e r c e i v e / c o n c e iv e /r e p r e s e n t / r e f e r to th in g s unless th e n e ce ssa ry c o n d itio n s o f e x p e r i e n c e /p e r c e p t io n / c o n c e p ti o n / r e p r e s e n ta ­ t io n / r e f e r e n c e o b ta in . T h e r e fo r e , y o u c a n n o t e x p e r i e n c e /p e r c e i v e / c o n c e iv e / r e p re s e n t/r e f e r to th in g s -in -th e m s e lv e s . O f co u rse, h a v in g d is tin g u is h e d X e d th in g s f ro m th in g s -in -th e m s e lv e s a n d re le -‫־‬ g a te d th e la tte r to th e w astes o f th e in c o n c e iv a b le , th e p re ssu re s o o n m o u n ts to d isp e n se w i t h th e in - it s e l f a lto g e th e r a n d to s h r in k a ll re a lity d o w n to th e c o n fin e s o f th e ‘f o r u s’ (th e p h e n o m e n a l) . T h u s , a lth o u g h it is o n ly s u p p o s e d to s e c u re c o r re la tio n ist a g n o s tic is m a b o u t th e i n - it s e l f r a th e r t h a n fu ll-b lo w n c o n c e p tu a l id e a l­ ism , th e G e m in v a ria b ly h e ra ld s th e slide to w a rd s th e la tte r. 26. B u t th e G e m is b e tte r v ie w e d as a n a r g u m e n t fo r c o rre la tio n is m r a th e r t h a n fo r fi 1ll-fl.edged c o n c e p tu a l id ea lism . F o r th e re are a n y n u m b e r o f h u m a n a c tiv itie s besid es t h in k i n g o r c o n c e iv in g th a t c a n b e s u b s titu te d fo r X , th e r e b y y ie ld in g a n e q u a lly w id e a ss o rtm e n t o f n o n -id e a lis t a n ti-re a lis m s : p ra g m a tis m , so cial c o n s tr u c ­ tiv ism , d e c o n s tr u c tio n , e tc .T h u s , it c o m e s as n o s u rp ris e t h a t th e G e m s h o u ld h a v e p ro v e d th e tru s ty a d ju ta n t fo r a lm o st e v e ry v a rie ty o f late tw e n ti e th - c e n t u r y c o r re la tio n is m , f ro m G o o d m a n a n d R o r t y a t o n e e n d to M e r le a u - P o n ty a n d L a to u r at th e o th e r. B u t u n f o r tu n a te ly fo r c o rre la tio n is m , n o a m o u n t o f in v e n tiv e n e ss in

substituting for X andY can suffice to palliate the fallaciousness of the Gem, which Stove (1991: 147) understandably dismissed as ‘an argument so bad it is hard to imagine anyone ever being swayed by it’. 27. In light o f this argumentative paucity, it is somewhat perplexing to see Q uentin Meillassoux, the philosopher w ho has done more than anyone in recent years to challenge the hegemony o f correlationism, declare his admiration for ‘the exceptional strength of this [correlationist] argumentation, apparently and desper­ ately implacable [. . .It is] an argument as simple as it is powerful: N o X without a givenness o fX , no theory about X w ithout a positing o f X ’ (Meillassoux 2007: 409).W hat Meillassoux is entreating us to admire here is the high transcendentalist variant o f the Gem, where ‘givenness’ and ‘positing’ stand for the conditions of receptivity and reflection respectively, and X is the object whose necessary condi­ tions they provide. In order for X to be given, the necessary conditions of givenness must obtain (transcendental affection). In order for there to be a theory of X, the necessary conditions ofpositing must obtain (transcendental reflection). Meillassoux has Fichte rather than Kant in mind here.13 For as he points out, it is not Kant but Fichte w ho is the veritable architect o f the correlationist circle, understood as the abolition o f the Kantian dualism of concept and intuition. Fichte overcomes the Kantian duality o f active conception and passive affection through his notion o f the Tathandlung, which is at once the positing of the given and the giving of the posited. By construing the correlation as a self-positing and thereby self-grounding act, Fichte seals the circle o f correlation against any incursion of dogmatically posited exteriority - in other words, he eliminates the thing-in-itself. For Fichte, the non-I through w hich the I is affected is merely the posited residue of the absolute 1’s free and spontaneous act of self-positing. Thus, it is Fichte w ho uncovers the full idealist potency of transcendental reflection by tracking the power o f positing back to its source in the unobjectifiable activity o f the absolute ego. 28. Meillassoux underlines the extent to which Fichte’s radicalization of transcendental reflection seems to preclude any possibility o f metaphysical realism. Reflection as condition o f objectification (representation) is precisely what cannot be objectifi ed (represented); thus, Meillassoux argues, one cannot defeat correlationism merely by positing an unobjectifiable real as the allegedly mind-independent condition of objectification, for in doing so one is effectively contradicting oneself, since the non-posited status of the reality that is the content of one’s thought is effectively contradicted by the act ofthinking through which one posits it. Thus, transcenden­ tal realism understood as the positing of what is allegedly non-posited becomes self-refuting. According to Meillassoux, one is merely dogmatically seceding from rather than rationally refuting Fichtean correlationism if one thinks that positing an un-posited reality suffices to exempt one from the circle o f transcendental reflec­ tion. By emphasizing what he takes to be the exceptional rigour o f Fichtean correlationism, Meillassoux reasserts his conviction that correlationism can only be overcome from within: since Fichte has disqualified the possibility o f positing the

absolute as an object, the o rly non-dogmatic alternative to Fichte’s transcendentalization o f reflection consists in absolutizing the contingency of the correlation; that is, the inability of positing to ground its own necessity, w hich Meillassoux sees exemplified by Fichte’s characterization o f the T a thandlung as a free act - in other words, something that is contingent rather than necessary: W e choose w hether or not to posit our own subjective reflection, and this choice is not grounded on any necessary cause, since our freedom is radical. But to say this is just to recognize, after Descartes, that our subjectivity can­ not reach an absolute necessity but only a conditional one. Even if Fichte speaks abundantly o f absolute and unconditional necessity, his necessity is no longer a dogmatic and substantial necessity, but a necessity grounded in a freedom that is itself ungrounded. There can be no dogmatic proof that the correlation exists rather than not. (Meillassoux 2007: 430, translation modified) 29. Meillassoux is surely right to identify Fichte as the veritable founder o f strong correlationism (as opposed to weak or Kantian correlationism, which continues to postulate the existence o f the in-itself). But transcendental realists may be forgiven for remaining unmoved by the claim that the free act o f positing reflection dis­ qualifies every invocation o f a non-posited reality. For the Fichtean distinction between objectification and reflection hardly ameliorates correlationism’s rational credibility once we realize that the attempt to indict realism of performative con­ tradiction is simply an elaborately camouflaged version o f the Gem. Consider: One cannot posit Saturn urless the conditions of positing (the free and unobjectifiable activity o f the absolute ego) obtain. Therefore, one cannot posit Saturn as non-posited (existing independently o f the free and unobjectifiable activity o f the absolute ego). Here once again, the sleight o f hand consists in the equivocation between what should be two distinct functions o f the word ‘Saturn’. (We will use ‘Saturn’ when mentioning the word and Saturn w hen designating the concept for which the word stands). For the premise to be safely tautological (rather than an outrageously metaphysical begging o f the question), the w ord ‘Saturn’ must be understood to mean sense (or ‘mode of presentation’) o f the concept Saturn. But, in order for the conclusion to be interesting (as opposed to blandly tautological), the w ord ‘Saturn’ must be understood to mean the referent o f the concept Saturn. Once this is understood, it becomes clear that the considerations that make it true to say that Saturn cannot be posited independently o f the conditions o f its positing (i.e. the conditions for the proper use o f the concept) do not make it true to say that Saturn cannot be posited as non-posited (i.e. that Saturn cannot exist unless there are conditions for the proper use o f Saturn).

30. When I say that Saturn does not need to be posited in order to exist, I am not saying that the meaning o f the concept Saturn does not need to be posited by us in order to exist - quite obviously, the concept Saturn means what it does because o f us, and in this sense it is perfectly acceptable to say that it has been ‘posited’ through hum an activity. But w hen I say that Saturn exists un-posited, I am not making a claim about a word or a concept; my claim is rather that the planet which is the referent o f the w ord ‘Saturn’ existed before we named it and will probably still exist after the beings who named it have ceased to exist, since it is something quite distinct both from the w ord ‘Saturn’ and the concept Saturn for which the w ord stands.Thus the ‘Saturn’ that is synonymous with ‘correlate of the act of positing’ (i.e. Saturn as the sense o f the w ord ‘Saturn’) is not synony­ mous w ith the Saturn probed by Cassini-Huygens. To say that Saturn exists unposited is simply to say that Cassini-Huygens did not probe the sense of a word and is not in orbit around a concept. 31. It might be objected that w e need Saturn to say w hat Saturn is; that w e can­ not refer to Saturn or assert that it is w ithout Saturn. But this is false: the first humans who pointed to Saturn did not need to know and were doubtless mistaken about what it is: but they did not need to know in order to point to it. To deny this is to imply that Saturn’s existence —that it is - is a function of w hat it is: that Saturn is indissociable from Saturn (or whatever else people have believed Saturn to be). But this is already to be a conceptual idealist. Even were the latter to dem ­ onstrate that the conditions o f sense determine the conditions of reference, this would still not be enough to show that the existence o f the referent depends upon the conditions o f reference.To do that, one would have to show that ‘to be’ means ‘to be referred to ’; an equation tantamount to Berkeley’s equation o f ‘to be’ with ‘to be perceived’.Yet it would require more than another Gem to dissolve such a fundamentally normative distinction in meaning. O f course, this distinction can be challenged by questioning the nature o f the relation between sense and reference and interrogating the relation between words and things.14The more sophisticated varieties o f anti-realism have done so in interesting and instructive ways. But the claim that the difference between what things are and that they are is not ultimately conceptual cannot be challenged by wilfully conflating the sense o f a word with the referent of its concept, as the Fichtean argument above does. Fichte notw ith­ standing, there would seem to be good cognitive grounds for distinguishing words from things and meanings from objects. One can o f course contest this cognitive conviction by alleging that it is a rationally indefensible dogma; but confusing Saturn w ith Saturn is not the way to do it. It is tautologically true to say that one cannot posit something w ithout positing it; but it no more follows from this that the posited X is nothing apart from its positing than that Saturn is the same thing as Saturn. 32. Fichte’s putative refutation o f transcendental realism rests on an equivocation between the necessary or fo rm a l conditions for the structure of cognitive activity

and the real conditions for the being o f its correlate. The correlationist conceit is to suppose that formal conditions o f‘experience’ (however broadly construed) suffice to determine material conditions o f reality. But that the latter cannot be uncovered independently of the former does not mean that they can be circumscribed by them. Since Fichte’s purported disqualification o f transcendental realism relies entirely on this conflation, there is no reason for us to lend it any more credence than we accord to Berkeley’s ‘p roof’o f the impossibility of conceiving independently existing material objects. 33. The problem o f objective synthesis (or w hat Laruelle calls ‘philosophical decision’) is basically that of how to adjudicate the relationship between concep­ tual thought and non-conceptual reality. But, that we have a concept of the differ­ ence between Saturn and Saturn does not entail that the difference is a difference in the concept: concept o f difference :;t: conceptual difference. The acknowledgement of this non-equivalence is the basic premise o f transcendental realism, w hich cannot be subverted simply by equivocating, in the manner o f strong or Fichtean correlationism, between the conditions o f positing and the being o f the posited. For as Laruelle points out, even this equivocation cannot but invoke the absolute reality of the T athandlung or act o f self-positing: the Fichtean cannot help but be a realist about her own positing activity. Realism is uncircumventable, even for the most stubborn anti-realist.The problem is to identify the salient epistemological consid­ erations so that the question o f what to be a realist about may be rationally adju­ dicated. In this regard, the sorts o f phenomenological intuition about conscious activity resorted to by Fichteans and other idealists remain a dubious source of authority. M ore fundamentally, the question is why those w ho are so keen to attribute absolute or unconditional reality to the activities o f self-consciousness (or of minded creatures) seem so loath to confer equal existential rights upon the un­ conscious, mindless processes through w hich consciousness and mindedness first emerged and will eventually be destroyed. 34. Kantians rightly charge dogmatic metaphysicians w ith ignoring the problem of cognitive access: this is the Critical problem o f the relation between representa­ tion and reality. Yet far from resolving the access problem, strong correlationism simply dissolves it by abolishing the in-itself. Acknowledging the autonomy of the in-itself, transcendental realism faces the problem of determining what is real. This cannot be addressed independently o f scientifi c representation. For those of us who take scientific representation to be the most reliable form o f cognitive access to reality, the problem is one of granting maximal (not, please note, incorrigible) authority to the scientific representation o f the world while acknowledging that science changes its m ind about w hat it says there is. Accordingly, the key question becomes: how can we acknowledge that scientific conception tracks the in-itself w ithout resorting to the problematic metaphysical assumption that to do so is to conceptually circumscribe the ‘essence’ (or formal reality) of the latter? For we want to be able to claim that science knows reality w ithout rehabilitating the

Aristotelian (i.e. pre-M odern) equation of reality with substantial form. This is to say that the structure o f reality includes but is not exhausted by the structure of discretely individuated objects. Indeed, it is the nature o f the epistemological cor­ relation between individuated concepts and individual objects that is currently being investigated by cognitive science. Here again, Sellars’ work provides an invaluable starting point, since his critique o f the Given shows that we require a theory o f concepts as much as a theory o f objects. Indeed, folk psychology is itself a proto-scientific theory o f mind which can be improved upon. The science of objects must be prosecuted in tandem w ith a science o f concepts, o f the sort cur­ rently prefigured by Sellarsian naturalists such as Paul Churchland - although we cannot follow the latter in maintaining that pragmatic-instrumentalist constraints provide a secure epistemological footing for the connection between concepts and objects. 35. O f course, recognizing this does not resolve or answer any of the profound epistemological and metaphysical difficulties w hich confront us in the wake of sci­ ence’s remarkable cognitive achievements. But it may help us realize that these difficulties cannot be circumvented, as both correlationists and dognatic metaphy­ sicians seek to do, by dispensing w ith those hard-won dualisms that have helped clarify what distinguishes scientific representation fi'om metaphysical fantasy. Dualisms such as those o f meaning and being, knowing and feeling, concept and object, are not relics o fan outmoded metaphysics; they are makeshift but indispen­ sable instruments through which reason begins to be apprised both ofits continu­ ity and its discontinuity w ith regard to w hat it is still expedient to call ‘nature’. Notes 1 T h e use o f th e capitalized ‘C ritical’ is intended to signal the author’s endorsem ent o f the anti-dogm atic spirit o fK a n t’s project but n o t the letter o f its doctrine, specifically, tran ­ scendental idealism. 2 See H eidegger (1962): Introduction. 3 For an account o f correlatiorism , see M eillassoux (2008). 4 See in particular, Sellars (1968). 5 Sellars’ inferentialist account o f rationality has been developed and expanded by R o b e rt B random , the contem porary philosopher w h o has probably done m ost to draw attention to the significance o f Sellars’ philosophical achievem ent. See B random (1994, 2000). 6 O r ‘rationalistic naturalism ’: straddling as it does the divide betw een post-K antian ration­ alism and post-D arw inian naturalism, Sellars’ philosophical project is susceptible to very different interpretations depending on w hether one emphasizes its rationalistic o r natu­ ralistic aspect.T he rationalist com p o n en t o f Sellars’ legacy has been developed by R o b e rt B random . By way o f contrast, its naturalistic dim ension has influenced such un co m p ro ­ m ising philosophical materialists as Paul C hurchland, D aniel D en n ett and R u th G arrett M illikan. A lthough B random ’s ‘n e o -H eg e lia n ’ in terpretation o f Sellars has dom inated recent discussion o f the latter’s legacy - arguably to the detrim ent o f his naturalism , and particularly his co m m itm e n t to scientific realism - the im portance accorded to the sci­ entific im age in Sellars’ ‘synoptic vision’ has been em phasized by James O ’Shea (2007).

O ’Shea’s w ork provides a m uch-needed corrective to th e dom inant neo-H egelian appropriation o f Sellars’ legacy. See Sellars (1968: 173).T h e concept o f ‘folk m etaphysics’, understood as the set ofdefault conceptual categories in term s o f w hich hum ans m ake sense o f the w orld p rio r to any sort o f theoretical reflection, is beginning to play an increasingly im portant role in cog­ nitive science. Faces, persons, bodies, solid objects, v oluntary m otion, cause and effect, are examples o f folk-metaphysical categories in this sense. 8 B runo L atour has w ritte n a m anifesto for irreductionism : see his It‫׳‬ reductions, Part Two o f L atour (1993). 9 T his is one o f the most valuable insights in the m id -p erio d w ork o f François Laruelle (w hich he refers to as Philosophie II): see in particular Laruelle (1991). U nfortunately, its 7 im portance seems to dim inish in Laruelle’s subsequent w ork. See Sellars (1997). 11 T h e signal m erit o f Paul C hurchland’s w ork, follow ing Sellars’, is to challenge the m yth that the nature o f concepts is intuitively accessible. See C hurchland (1989). 12 See Stove (1991). ‘G em ’ is o f course a sardonic m oniker for a particularly egregious argum entative fallacy. Stove’s capitalization here is intended to underscore the surprising popularity o f this particular philosophical fallacy. Stove is a curious figure: a philosophi­ cal w riter o f outstanding analytical acum en and scathing w it, he is too acerbic to be respectable b u t to o brilliant to be dismissed as a crank. N o dou b t his noxious political view s (maniacal anti-com m unism coupled w ith not-so -th in ly veiled racism and sexism) prevented him from gaining the recognition his w ork m ight have w o n had he been o f a m ore benign tem per. Som e will cite his reactionary opinions as reason enough to dismiss him ; correlationists in particular are liable to conclude from the fact th at Stove, w h o defended realism, was racist and sexist, that realism entails racism and sexism. 13 Interestingly, a good case can be m ade for the claim that K ant’s w ork is far less indebted 10 to the G em than that o f m any Kantians. This is a p o in t m ade by Jam es Franklin (2002). A m ong the m any m erits o f the Sellarsian reconstruction o f K ant is that it gives us a G em -free Kant: it suggests that transcendental philosophy can and should be dissociated fio m transcendental idealism, and that Kant’s transcendental distinction betw een concepts and intuitions can and should be dissociated from his argum ents for the ideality o f space and tim e. 14■ Sellars for one does n o t believe that m eaning can be understood in term s o f a set o f relations b etw ee n words and things (w h e th er m ental or physical). His ‘conceptual ro le’ semantics require that w e cease to construe ‘reference’ as a relation betw een language and extra-linguistic reality. However, Sellars has a fascinating account o f the way in w hich the rule b o u n d regularities that are constitutive o f sem antic functioning supervene upon causal regularities b etw ee n organisms and their environm ent. T hus, for Sellars, the super­ structure o f rule governed sym bol behaviour is anchored in the infrastructure o f ‘tied b ehaviour’, or w h a t B ran d o m calls ‘reliable differential responsive dispositions.’ Sellars’ account is far too intricate to be addressed here, b u t suffice it to say that he rem ained com m itted to a naturalistic scientifi c realism, and that his philosophy o f language provides no w arrant for the sort o f anti-realism we have been considering. Bibliography Berkeley, G. (1988) Principles of Human Knowledge and Three Dialogues, ed. R . S. W oolhouse, St. Ives: Penguin. Brandom , R . (1994) Making it Explicit: Reasoning, Representing and Discursive Commitment, C am bridge, M A : H arvard U niversity Press.

B random , R . (2000) Articulating Reasons: An Introduction to Inferentialism, C am bridge, MA: H arvard U niversity Press. C hurchland, P. (1989) A Neiirocomputatioiial Perspective: The Nature ojMind andtheStructureof Science, C am bridge, MA: M IT. Franklin, J. (2002) ‘Stove’s D iscovery o f the W orst A rgum ent in the W orld’, Philosophy 77: 6 15-24. H eidegger, M . (1962) Being and Time, trans. J. M acquarrie and E. R o b in so n , O xford: Blackwell. Laruelle, F. (1991) En tant qu'un. La non-philosophie expliquéeauphilosophes, Paris: Aubier. Latour, B. (1993) The Pasteurization of France, trans. A. Sheridan and J. Law, C am bridge, MA: H arvard U niversity Press. M eillassoux, Q . (2007) ‘Speculative R ealism ’in Collapse: Philosophical ResearchandDevelopm ent, vol. III: 40 8 -3 5 . M eillassoux, Q. (2008) After Finitude: An Essay on the Necessity of Contingency, trans. R . Brassier, L ondon: C o n tin u u m . O ’Shea,J. (2007) Wilfrid Sellars: Naturalismwith aNormative Turn, C am bridge: Polity. Sellars, W (1968) ScienceandMetaphysics: Variations on Kantian Them es, L ondon: R o u tle d g e and K egan Paul. Sellars. W. (1997) Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind, ed. R . B random , C am bridge, M A : H arvard U niversity Press. Stove, D. (1991) ‘Idealism: A V ictorian H o rro r Story (Part Tw o)’, in ThePlato Cult andOther Philosophical Follies, O xford: Blackwell.